NMR: "Man-Computer Symbiosis" summary (pgs. 73-82)

In 1960s J.C.R. Licklider was a very important promoter of science education, time-sharing systems, interactive computing, computer networks, and computing as a future form of new media. He was responsible for redirecting the Advanced Research Projects Agency funding to iniversities thus creating the "iron triangle" which is composed of industry, academia, and the military. Licklider strongly encouraged universities to link their computers together in computer networks to share important technological developments in computer software developed on college campuses. Licklider had a great vision for the future which was that we could more effectively communicate and carry out functions by way of the computer. In Man-Computer Symbiosis, computers have the capacity to carry out formulative thinking and find solutions to problems. Additionally, the computer would cooperate with humans in making decisions and controlling situations.

Timeline for Intoduction to "Man-Computer Symbiosis"

1960 - J.C.R. Licklider wrote his essay "Man-Computer Symbiosis"

1962 - Licklader leaves his post as VP at Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN) to head the Advanced Research Projects Agency (now the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency)

1962 - Licklader addressed a memo to the "Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network"

1960s - Licklader encourages universities to link their computers together to share in the benefits from new software tools

1964 - Licklader left ARPA but the network he envisioned, the ARPAnet, took shape

1968 - With Robert Taylor, Licklader helped write the article "The Computer as Communication Device"...said that soon we would be able to communicate better through a machine than by face-to-face interaction

1969 - the 2nd ARPAnet was connected by Doug Engelbart at SRI wrich brought online the network that would become the Internet

NMR: "Men, Machines and the World About" summary (pgs. 65-72)

In his article "Men, Machines and the World About," Norbert Wiener discusses his new found field of science called "cybernetics," the study of mechanical and electronic systems designed to replace the control functions of human beings. In order to do so, cybernetics applies statistical mehcanics to communication technology. Central to his discussion in the article, however, is Wiener's discussion of the implications of microcomputer technology. Wiener proposes the idea that a new industrial revolution is taking place in which the energy of the machine is replacing the energy of the human/animal. Wiener says that the discrimination of the machine is taking the place of human judgement and discrimination. Although such a system would be economical being that it would save time by way of automation, such a system may be flawed and thus potentially harmful. Such a system may not be suited to make good judgements because the information provided may be too complicated, it may be influenced by ecological factors not accounted for by the judging system, and the judgement itself may be too complicated and disordered for human understanding. With this in mind, it can be concluded that humans should not incorporate the use of such a system unless every and all environmental/external factors can be accounted for or we will, by way of the machine, rip ourselves away from the ecological foundations that, in fact, sustain life. The dream of an entirely automated world can mean the end of human life.

Timeline fore "Men, Machines and the World About"

WWII - Norbert Wiener engages in research project funded by Vannevar Bush's academic/industrial/ military "iron triangle."

1947 - Wiener writes "A Scientist Rebels" which is an open letter that discusses the importance of scientists being engaged with the consequences of their work. In the case of war where the technology of weaponry is concerned, scientific data is a matter life or death.

1954 - Wiener releases his essay "Men, Machines, and the World About" which discusses the history and concepts of his new cybernetic science which sets out to create an overarching study of "communication and control in the animal and machine."

Post WWII - Wiener refuses military funding for his work

1987 - Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility start awarding an annual Wiener Award to award others for their contributions to "socail responsibility in computing technology."

New Media Reader: "Computing Machinery and Intelligence"

In Alan Turing's 1950 article "Computing Machinery and Intelligence," Turing introduces a new idea that he calls the "Imitation Game." He describes two versions of the game. In one version, an interrogator talks through a teletype machine to a woman and a man. The man is supposed to try and convince the interrogator that he is a woman. The woman, on the other hand, is supposed to keep the interrogator from concluding that the man is a woman. She might do so by convincing the interrogator that she is a woman and that the man is lying. Later in his essay, Turing proposes the other version of the game in which the interrogator talks to a person and a computer. It is the computer's task to convince the interrogator that it is a person, while it is the person's job to prevent the computer from doing so. Ultimately, if the interrogator cannot determine which is a computer and which is a human, the computer wins. The point in the game which came to be known as the "Turing Test" is to demonstrate a machine's capability for intelligence. ..the computer's ability to imitate the functions of a human being. In his essay, Turing proposed that within the next fifty years it would be possible to program computers in such a way that they would be able to win the imitation game at least 30% of the time after a period of 5 minute questioning by an interrogator. This idea of Turing's is evident of his optimism for the possibility of artificial intelligence in the future.

Timeline for Intoduction to "Computing Machinery and Intelligence"

1943 - the British Colossus computers built with the help of Alan Turing, a Cambridge mathematician.

1950 - Turing releases his article "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" which describes what would later be called the "Turing Test" which raises the question "can a computer fool a person into believing that it too is human while communicating over a teletype setup?"

1950s (early) - billing systems being developed for use by businesses in computing, performing and keeping track of mathematical calculations. Turing's predictions for the computer, however, went beyond mathematical function.

1966 - The Association for Computing Machinery starts offering the annual Turing Award which is awarded to technical contributors with the field

1988 - Ivan Sutherland is given the Turing Award for his advancements in computer graphics which started with "Sketchpad."

1991 - Turing Test inspires the annual Loebner Prize competition

1997 - Douglas Engelbart given the Turing Award for being the inspiration behind interactive computer technology

New Media Reader: "As We May Think" Summary (pgs. 35-47)

In Vannevar Bush's 1945 article "As We May Think," he discusses inventions of the time in addition to providing his speculations on future technological innovations that will come about. Bush, however, voices his concern that the ending of WWII may hold back scientific advancements due to insufficient government funding. Bush talks about future developments in the world of photography that would allow photographers to simply wear a pair of special glasses through which they could look and capture images of their field of vision. This film could then be developed instantly using a dry technique, rather than chemically developing the film over time. Bush then came up with his idea for a mass storage device which would store thousands of books and pictures. Bush called this idea of his the "memex" and proposed that users of the memex would be able to take notes right there on the screen using a keyboard in conjunction with different buttons and levers. The notes taken by each user and the different research "trails" incorporated could then be saved and made available to other users of the memex. The article closes with other technological predictions made by Bush.